6 How to promote

student selfconfidence

Coverage

_ Student struggle and the hostile academic environment

_ How we do it

_ Welcoming practice

_ Tackling positive thinking

_ ESS 7: How to build your confidence

_ Bibliography and further reading

Introduction

It is impossible to overestimate the fear and lack of self-confidence of

students, especially that of non-traditional students. All the students

with whom we work express their lack of faith in themselves in some

form or other in that they are not clever enough, that they have no

potential, that they are out of place, that they are impostors soon to be

discovered – generally that they are not good enough. These negative

opinions are only reinforced by the way that the widening participation

debate has been conducted in Britain in the early twenty-first century.

There is constant talk of lowering standards and dumbing down – and

‘Mickey Mouse students for whom Mickey Mouse degrees are quite

appropriate’. Margaret Hodge when Minister for Lifelong Learning

(2002–03) underscored this with the reassurance that many of the new

students would not be entering professions or industries requiring

traditional degrees but would rather undertake vocational programmes

(Hodge, 2002).

HE institutions can exacerbate student lack of self-esteem in the way

that they implicitly view and explicitly treat their students. If lecturers do

view the new students as a pollution of the ivory environment, this will

very quickly communicate itself to the student and reinforce the negative

self-perception already extant. Further, if the HE institution makes no

attempt to bridge the gap between the student and the forms and practices

of HE, or if the HE orientation bridge that the university builds is one that

overtly or covertly defines the student as deficit, where perhaps:

Student language is made visible and problematised but the language

of discourse and the pedagogical practices in which they are embedded

. . . remain invisible, taken as ‘given’ (Lillis, 2001: 22)

this will help confirm a negative notion of the (non-traditional) student

in both staff and students.

In this chapter we explore the affective position of the student entering

higher education, with a special focus on the thoughts and feelings of the

non-traditional student. We move on to consider how we in learning

development attempt to build student self-confidence and promote

self-esteem.

Caught on the cultural cusp

At our institution Anie (2001) in an employability study that explored the

employment outcomes of our students and Leathwood (2003) drawing on

a longitudinal study that followed a cohort of 600 students through their

whole degree process both spoke of the lack of self-confidence experienced

by non-traditional students and how this initial low self-esteem was

exacerbated by the cumulative and interlocking struggles of HE –

struggles with finance, struggles with the reality that their degree would

be worth less in the job market (Archer, 2002), struggles with not being

able to take up postgraduate study opportunities and struggles with the

occult and mysterious practices of HE itself.

Leathwood (2003), citing Kuhn (1995) and Reay (1998), speaks of the

pervasiveness of the ‘shame’ inherent in gender, race and class, where to

be working class is to experience the constant fear of never getting it

right. For Leathwood these feelings are not personal failings but rather

she relates them to the pathologising of the ‘other’ within the ‘systems of

oppression’ of an unequal society, exacerbated by the myths of meritocracy

and classlessness that pervade all social systems, including our

education system. As Tett, citing Bourdieu and Passeron (1979) describes

it: ‘Education could be the royal road to the democratization of culture if

it did not consecrate the initial cultural inequalities by ignoring them’

(Tett, 2000: 190).

6: How to promote student self-confidence 47

The non-traditional student in HE

Those triumphalist celebrations of fluidity always overlook the fact

that being unfixed, mobile, in-between, can distress as much as it

liberates. So one’s sense of class identity is uncertain, torn and

oscillating – caught on a cultural cusp. (Medhurst, in Munt, 2000: 20)

The transition into HE is often a painful one for our students. And

indeed the students that we have interviewed and with whom we speak

always tell of their fear, anxiety and apprehension. There is the terror of

walking into the building, of that first lecture where it seems like

everybody is looking at ‘me’ (some lecture theatres hold 300 or more

people – that is the size of some secondary schools, or it may be the year

size of a student from a comprehensive). Students speak of ‘words

swimming before their eyes’, of the terror in a seminar when they can’t

understand a word that is being said. Students break down when trying

to read a complex academic article (Sinfield, 2003; Sinfield et al., 2004).

We detail this not to confirm tutors in negative impressions of

non-traditional students, but to argue that widening participation represents

an opportunity for all our institutions to evolve. As we argue

elsewhere in this text, adapting to mass higher education need not

involve any lowering or levelling down of standards, but that in positively

recognising difference and devising empowering curricula, or spaces

within curricula and within our institutions, we will be facilitating the

success of all our students (Warren, 2002). For, yes, student selfconfidence

does change if the student is welcomed into the academic

environment – and the forms and processes of education itself are

demystified. Given opportunities to learn, rehearse and refine academic

skills and practices – without stigma – the success of all students is

promoted.

Arguably all the work that is undertaken under the aegis of study and

academic skills or learning development operates to improve student

understanding of and performance within the academic environment –

and thus promotes the building of a self-confidence and self-esteem based

on perceived improvements in performance. Further, our students have

also indicated that they have valued the opportunity to directly discuss

issues of self-confidence, self-esteem and positive thinking. While this

latter does draw on some elements of pop psychology and may be

dismissed as psycho-babble, we can only say that after such sessions

students report back that they not only feel better in college/university

but they have also felt enabled to speak up at work, change jobs, pass

driving tests, actually do that presentation and so forth.

48 Teaching, Learning and Study Skills: A guide for tutors

How we do it

Welcoming practice

As indicated above, we start this process by valuing the non-traditional

student and the qualities that they do bring to the HE environment. We

make our learning development space as friendly and welcoming as we

can, for you cannot downplay the impact of a friendly face! We remember

that while our students may have experienced the world in powerful ways

before they have entered college or university, typically they will have

had unsuccessful or traumatising previous educational experience. We

work to demonstrate that we value our students, and attempt to help

them to value the skills, aptitudes and experiences that they bring with

them. We stress that there is no shame in not automatically knowing how

to study, learn and communicate effectively but that these things can be

learned. We stress how we really like working with such motivated and

keen students.

Tackling positive thinking

Our interactions with students take place one-to-one in workshops, in

small group work and with a whole class in our study and academic skills

programme. When directly addressing positive thinking in our study and

academic skills programme, we typically do so when we tackle presentation

theory and practice for often that is the academic practice that

students fear the most. When lecturing on positive thinking, we explore

fear and where it originates, the impact of fear and low self-esteem on

study, and then suggest steps to take to build self-confidence. Below is

the gist of our session upon ‘Fear, self-esteem and positive thinking’,

including a summary of the contents of the ‘lecture’ that we normally

give preceded by the preliminary activities that may be undertaken.

Please feel free to use something similar with your students.

_Tutor tip: You may not initially feel comfortable giving a lecture on this topic

– we certainly did not. It does not feel academic perhaps or it feels like something

that only certain sections of an audience might appreciate. We can only report

that this has worked for us – even in mixed groups of students: male and female,

young and old, home and international, first-year and postgraduate.

Fear, self-esteem and positive thinking – preliminary

discussion and activities

We often start by asking students whether or not low self-esteem affects

student performance. To illustrate we ask the class to consider the

sportsperson, asking who will win the race, the runner who believes in

6: How to promote student self-confidence 49

him- or herself or the one that is loping along thinking that they can’t

possibly win? When looking at sport it is obvious that the mind can have

a strong impact on how the body will perform – we argue that this is also

true for academic study. We illustrate how low self-esteem has force in

education, not least because it can lead to stress – and the release of the

stress hormones cortisol and adrenalin (see also Chapter 10 on presentations)

which reduce short-term memory and bring about the tunnel

vision and focus necessary for safety – but which is counter-productive in

education. For example, if a building is burning, you do not want to stop

and wonder from whence the fire originated and whether or not there is

an arsonist at work – you just need to flee the building. However, in

academic study the ‘from whence’ and ‘I wonder if’ questions are

essential.

Activity tip

Utilise an illustrative activity (Jeffers, 1987): ask for a volunteer and get them to

extend their stronger arm. Tell the student that they must think negative

thoughts such as ‘I am a failure’ and ‘I am weak’ as they resist you pushing down

their arm. Typically the arm is very easy to push down. Now try again, but this

time the student must think, ‘I am powerful’ and ‘I am strong’. Typically the

second time it really is more difficult to push down the student’s arm.

Student activity: The difficult sentence

Find for yourself a typically obscure academic sentence from your discipline, or

use the one below. Write it on an overhead or on the board. Ask students to

read the sentence and then write down their reaction to it.

Go round the room asking students for their reactions. Take a few moments to

discuss these, possibly indicating that while there are no necessarily right or

wrong reactions, there were different ones. Further, say that noting that

different reactions are possible should make students realise that their own

reactions are neither necessary nor inevitable – they are learned. Once learned,

they may be unlearned – or at least reflected upon.

Sample sentence:

‘It is in order to return at this point to Jameson’s ‘‘loss of referent’’ theme,

because it is precisely this phenomenology of the everyday that Jameson’s work

both lacks and consciously relegates to the ethnographic sidelines’ (Feather, H.,

50 Teaching, Learning and Study Skills: A guide for tutors

2000, Inter-subjectivity and Contemporary Social Theory. Aldershot/Avebury – a

really useful book by the way!).

Here are some responses gathered from our students (see ESS, pp. 146–7):

_ I got really angry! Why on earth do they have to write like that? It’s stupid.

_ This is strange and scary, but it’s where I’ve got to get to.

_ I read it several times to try to make sense of it.

_ I used my dictionary of literary terms and tried to make sense of it piece by

piece.

_ It made me feel like giving up, it’s obvious that I’m not welcome here.

_ Well I just laughed and laughed. They’ve got to be joking haven’t they?

Ask students: What did you make of the different reactions to that sentence?

Were you surprised? What effect will this have on you?

Potential discussion: It can help to reassure students about their personal

responses to the sentence. Negative responses typically reveal how unconfident

the student is feeling, but this situation can change. Further, remind them that as

there are different responses recorded from the group, no one response is

inevitable, it has been learned. Students can work to learn a different response

to academic language and situations.

Fear and positive thinking – lecture notes

Study impacts upon the whole person for the human being is made up of

mind and body, of effect and affect. Often ‘affect’ feels inappropriate in

the academic, primarily cognitive, context and thus students feel that

they ought to ignore or repress their feelings, especially negative ones.

Obviously in terms of affect, we hope that students will feel excited,

stimulated and challenged – but we must be aware that they might be

horrified, terrified and demotivated. Ironically, the push for the repression

of negative feelings can lead to an increase in their power rather

than a decrease, in students becoming more subject to the occult

practices of education rather than in mastering them. In this discussion

we are going to cover fear and what we fear, why we experience low

self-esteem and fear and what can be done to overcome our fears.

Fear and what we fear

_Tutor tip: You can ask students for fears (not phobias) before speaking on

the topic if you wish.

6: How to promote student self-confidence 51

We are frightened of many things. We are frightened of ageing, disease

and death, typically we are all frightened of change, of the new. Change

makes us uncomfortable – and it is not just major change that

discomforts. Students are often frightened of entering the library, of

reading an academic text, of giving that first presentation. We can be

frightened of anything and everything, and while fear may be perfectly

natural and normal, it can make life – especially student life – really

difficult. For while there might be some things in life that you can choose

to avoid – you really do not have to bungee jump if you are frightened of

heights – the majority of things that we fear as students do have to be

engaged with.

Why we experience fear and low self-esteem

It can be argued that the fear response is the body’s way of telling us that

something is not for us, that there are too many risks involved – after all,

it is rather silly to bungee jump. But if people avoided everything that

they feared they would undertake nothing at all. Remember, to become

a student is actually to embrace change, and change does involve risk –

risk to one’s sense of self, to one’s identity – as well as fear of failure, of

looking, sounding and feeling like a fool. While nobody actually enjoys

these feelings, in an educational context if you avoid what you fear as a

student, then you definitely will not succeed. It can help if we try to

understand how low self-esteem and fear originate or operate in our

society.

Sociologists might argue that in an unequal society members of

underprivileged groups suffer low self-esteem as part of social conditioning;

it is an internalisation of the views that society holds of them.

Further, fear and low self-esteem can have an inhibiting effect on the

‘lower orders’ that serves the interests of the ruling class, for it is easier

to oppress people with low aspiration and who you can despise for their

own sense of inferiority (Leathwood, 2003).

Evolutionary psychologists (such as Baron-Cohen, 1997) argue that

fear, anxiety and even depression are a legacy of evolution. When an

animal is on unfamiliar territory it is in danger of its life, hence a fear

response is a survival mechanism. Unfortunately, as human beings we

also have consciousness and consequently an awareness of our own fear

that can inhibit us in ways that would never be true of an animal.

Popular psychologists (Jeffers, 1987) argue that fear and low selfesteem

are taught to us by our primary caregivers – ‘mind how you go’,

‘be careful’, ‘don’t do that, it’s dangerous’. When people say these things

to us they are often just expressing their fears (‘I don’t want anything

bad to happen to you’) but what we hear and internalise is that they do

not have faith in us, that they think we are inadequate. Once internalised

52 Teaching, Learning and Study Skills: A guide for tutors

this negative self-perception can be extremely inhibiting preventing us

from undertaking challenges or embracing risk.

Even economists have a say in this area – the non-stop pushing of

pensions and insurance policies implies that there are ways of eliminating

risk and making the world a totally safe and controllable space. But

to be human is to constantly move into unfamiliar territory, to embrace

risk. The more we focus on avoiding risk the more we are dehumanising

ourselves. And the more we listen to our fears, the more we will focus on

our inadequacies – and the less we are likely to do. This can be especially

negative for the student who has so many new things to face, so many

new challenges to embrace. If these changes are only viewed as problems

and opportunities to fail then it becomes even more difficult to positively

embrace education. This has a further consequence when studying if we

consider the role of ‘mistakes’ in the learning process.

The learning environment may also play a part in the fear factor.

Human beings do learn by trial and error. If the learning environment

feels over-threatening, the student will not want to make mistakes and

open themselves up to criticism: they may give up rather than reveal

their mistakes to hostile scrutiny. The lesson we can learn as academics

is to make the learning environment a safe one for all our students: a

space for trial and error, for learning from mistakes – and we must

reassure students that we have done so. The students have to realise that

they will get things wrong – quite often – but if they work to learn from

these experiences they will learn more.

What can be done to overcome fear and build self-confidence?

We have argued that fear, while often uncomfortable, is a perfectly

natural and normal response to life and to new and unfamiliar experiences.

We are now going to take a leaf out of the self-help book in order to

argue that it is possible to reframe fear and thus change our response to it.

We will move on to discuss how to take responsibility for our lives, change

a negative vocabulary, make positive friends and utilise affirmations.

Reframing fear

Kipling said that the only thing to fear was fear itself. We argue that fear

is unavoidable – what we can change is our response to fear. Here are

some new ways to look at fear – see if they help (you and) your students.

_ Fear is good: Fear is a wonderful indicator that we are doing new

things, moving into new areas and undertaking new challenges. In

this way fear is a good thing, it means that we are still growing, we

are still alive. Arguably, if we are not experiencing some element of

fear it means that we are stagnating – we are dying inside. Try to see

6: How to promote student self-confidence 53

fear as an indicator of growth and welcome it – celebrate the fact that

life still holds opportunity for you.

_ Fear affects everyone: One problem for students is that they tend

to think that everyone else is OK, that they are the only ones feeling

frightened and looking foolish. Obviously this is not true: if Cohen is

to be believed, everyone feels fear when embracing the new. Sometimes

just realising that everyone else is also frightened can take the

stigma out of our fear. Instead of a fear response proving once and for

all that we are either inadequate or a coward we can relax in the

realisation that it just means that we are as human as everybody else.

_ The only way to get rid of the fear of something is to do it –

quickly: Most people know this cliche´ to be true. The only way to

overcome a fear is to do that which we fear – and the quicker the

better. Students can spend months worrying about that presentation

– and then it is over in five minutes. The months of worry have just

served to make the task harder.

_ It’s easier to face fear than to live with fear: It really is easier

to deal with fear rather than to live with it. Every time we allow fear

to prevent us from undertaking something it is as if we are conspiring

against ourselves to make the world a worse place. So if engaging in

something that you fear, tell yourself you have actually chosen the

easier option.

_ It takes practice: Reframing fear in the ways detailed above may

not come naturally to your students. However, they will find that with

practice they will be able to face fear differently, and this will help

them embrace the challenges of being a student.

Taking responsibility for our lives

We have argued above that students can experience lack of selfconfidence

and low self-esteem as a result of an unequal society and the

social pressures under which they operate. While this is true, this can be

read as a way of disempowering students and confirming them in a victim

status. This is not a helpful place for anyone to be. While neither nature

nor society are fair, it is not enough for the student to sit back and say

well it’s not my fault. To be able to move forward the student must be

able to look at any situation in which they find themselves and work out

just how they can take control of it – or how they can move forward. For

if they just think ‘it’s not my fault’ they stay trapped – if it is their

responsibility then they can make things happen.

As a student, it may not be their fault that they are not as academically

inducted as the Oxbridge undergraduate, it may not be their fault that

54 Teaching, Learning and Study Skills: A guide for tutors

their professor thinks of them as a Mickey Mouse student . . . but there

will be something that they can do to improve their own chances within

the situation in which they find themselves if they get used to thinking

of themselves as in charge of:

_ their decisions

_ their actions

_ their state of mind

_ the amount of effort that they put in

_ getting work in on time

_ getting good grades . . . etc.

If those things matter, students can take steps to make them happen. Of

course we as academics can facilitate this by making our forms, processes

and criteria clear. We can operate successful and empowering induction

and HE orientation programmes, we can scaffold student learning in our

seminars and we can operate and work with learning development

facilities.

A positive vocabulary can help

The difficult sentence exercise above can reveal to people just how they

normally respond to (academic) challenges. When first responses to

situations tend to the negative this will often be reflected in the language

typically used. Work is always hard, tough and difficult – metaphors of

struggle, tunnelling, searching and suffering might all be used. If such a

student thinks about an assignment it will be in terms of the amount of

effort they will have to put in and the unending struggle that they will

have to endure rather than in terms of the excitement, the challenge –

the glorious frisson of fear.

It can help if we suggest that students start using language differently:

_ A problem becomes an opportunity. (To solve a problem we must

make something different happen – this is an opportunity for change.)

_ A disaster becomes a learning experience. (Well, if a problem is an

opportunity, a disaster must be a real opportunity – if we can reflect

upon it.)

_ ‘If only’ becomes ‘next time’. (We will make mistakes – and instead of

lamenting them we can learn from them and note what could be done

differently next time.)

_ Should becomes choice. (So it’s not ‘I should do that essay’ but ‘I

choose to do it’ or not.)

6: How to promote student self-confidence 55

_Tip: Remind students that each choice they make – to do or not to do

something – will have a price attached. This is another part of being human, our

choices have prices – it is best to accept this joyfully and move on.

Each of these vocabulary shifts is easy to mock but they all embrace a

shift in consciousness that will help the student face academic life more

positively. Obviously no one can make people shift their perspective – but

if the student does want to change, practising using this different

language will make a difference.

Positive friends

One thing that may occur for the ‘changing’ student is that they will

encounter derision or resistance from peers and family members. Young

students may find that they do not enjoy people viewing them as a swot

– and that a studious mien is neither ‘buff’ nor ‘cool’. Older students may

find that when inputting effort into their studies they will be expecting

family members to help more with chores – this does not always meet

with approval. Young and old students may find that they no longer have

time for everybody else’s woes and they will not always be at the end of

a telephone or ready to stop everything for a chat.

If the student wants to retain contact with friends and family

throughout their time as a student they will have to negotiate this change

as diplomatically as possible. It is not usually a good thing just to confront

everyone around you with the new, positive, in-your-face and selfinterested

person! Gently does it.

Further, it may be useful for students to start making new, positive

friends to help them maintain their positive outlook and their energy

levels. Negative people drain energy – positive people can excite and

stimulate. Encourage students to make positive study partners and to

form a positive study group. When encouraging group work in students

yourself, you might let them choose their own groups so that they can

work with people with whom they feel compatible – suggest that when

making this choice they choose someone as positive and motivated as

themselves – that is suitably ambiguous.

Affirmations

Typically we find that this is the topic with which the average academic

has the most difficulty. Affirmations are short positive statements that

students can use to overcome stress, to build their self-confidence and to

generally help themselves.

The initial idea behind the affirmation is to drown out the internalised

negative voice that we have grown up with. The ‘you’ll be sorry – you’re

too old, too stupid, too fat, too lumpen . . .’ voice that lives in the heart,

56 Teaching, Learning and Study Skills: A guide for tutors

head and ear of many of us – and the majority of our students. This voice

has to be replaced with a positive one of which the most basic is the ‘I

can handle it’ (Jeffers, 1987). If students say ‘I can handle it’ whenever

they face a difficult situation or when they feel a wave of insecurity or

self-doubt flood over them, they will calm down and be able to face

things.

From the basic ‘I can cope’ statement, students can move on to develop

their own set of affirmations, ones that address the other functions of the

affirmation, to energise and boost the self-confidence of the individual.

Remind students that affirmations should always be in the present tense

and always in the positive, the present tense so that the goal of the

affirmation becomes rooted in the now rather than remaining distant and

unobtainable, in the positive to emphasise that which is desired rather

than that which is being left behind. For example, it would be ‘I am

brave’ rather than ‘I will not be afraid.’

It is useful if people write out their affirmations and stick them up

around their homes so that the first thing they see in the morning could

be ‘it’s a great day’. When brushing their teeth it could be ‘I am

wonderful’ and so forth. If encouraging students to use this technique do

warn them that it is one that requires maintenance. People find that they

use this technique, feel great, decide they don’t need it anymore – and

sink back into negative thinking and behaviour. Remind them that they

will have had many, many years of practising their bad habits –

they need to give the new, positive ones the same chance.

_Tip: As a light-hearted follow-up to a session like this, ask students to bring

in their affirmations to share and discuss with the group.

Of course students will have to put in the academic work and effort as

well – they cannot just sit confidently chanting affirmations in a corner

and expect an essay to write itself. But thinking positively about their

ability to write that essay can lead them to discover the steps that need

to be taken to research and write an essay – and they may be able to give

themselves the time that they need to do the work required. Thus a

better essay will be written.

Conclusion

When concluding this session with your students as well as the

reiteration of the lecture as a whole: ‘We have looked at fear and the

effect that this has on the student, we have considered from where fear

has arisen and some things that we can do to overcome our fears . . .’ do

reassure them that if they are currently feeling more frightened – all that

power and responsibility can be quite intimidating – they just need to feel

the fear and do it anyway.

6: How to promote student self-confidence 57

Also: If you deliver a lecture based on the above with conviction and

enthusiasm, do not be surprised if you get a round of applause! Students

really do enjoy this one.

Practising it

_ When using ‘learning logs’ with your students do stress the value of

the ‘reaction’ section (see also Chapter 14 on reflective practice).

Honest personal reactions (especially when not penalised by the tutor)

can help students discover aspects of the education process that affect

them positively or negatively.

_ Have a session where students bring in affirmations to share with the

seminar group – risk sharing some of your own.

Extension

_ Arguably all the activities that you use with students to help them

become more aware of the forms and processes of education will

extend their self-confidence.

Overall conclusion

In this chapter we have considered the factors that tend to promote a lack

of self-confidence and self-esteem in the non-traditional student. We have

argued that academia has an affective as well as an effective dimension

– and that it is important to point this out to students and to

acknowledge it for ourselves. Finally we looked at how we cover this topic

in learning development, typically in a lecture on positive thinking

looking at self-esteem and fear, and what we can do to overcome fear and

build self-confidence. We do hope that you have found this an interesting

chapter and that you find it easy to use this ‘lecture’ with your students.

Bibliography and further reading

Anie, A. (2001) Widening Participation – Graduate Employability Project.

University of North London (now London Metropolitan University).

Archer, L. (2002) ‘Access elite’, Times Higher Education Supplement, 18

January.

Baron-Cohen, S. (1997) The Maladapted Mind. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology

Press.

Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J.-C. (1979) Reproduction in Education, Society and

Culture. London: Sage.

58 Teaching, Learning and Study Skills: A guide for tutors

Burns, T. and Sinfield, S. (2003) Essential Study Skills: The complete guide to

success _ university. London: Sage.

Hodge, Margaret, Secretary of State for Education (2002) Keynote speech: What

Is College and University Education for? Ecclestone Church House, Westminster,

Education Conference, 24 January.

Holmes, L. (2001) ‘Reconsidering graduate employability: the ‘‘graduate identity’’

approach’, Quality in Higher Education, 7 (2): 111–19.

Holmes, L. (2002) Available at: www.re-skill.org.uk/thesis/, accessed February

2002. (See also: www.re-skill.org.uk; www.graduate-employability.org.uk;

www.odysseygroup.org.uk.)

Jeffers, S. (1987) Feel the Fear and Do It Anyway. London: Century.

Kuhn, A. (1995) Family Secrets: Acts of Memory and Imagination. London:

Verso.

Leathwood, C. and O’Connell, P. (2003) ‘ ‘‘It’s a struggle’’: the construction of

the ‘‘new student’’ in higher education’, Journal of Educational Policy, 18 (6).

Lillis, T. (2001) Student Writing, Access, Regulation, Desire. London: Routledge.

Medhurst, A. (2000) ‘If anywhere: class identifications and cultural studies

academics’, in Munt, S. (ed.), Cultural Studies and the Working Class. London:

Cassell.

Munt, S. (ed.) (2000) Cultural Studies and the Working Class. London: Cassell.

Reay, D. (1998) Class Work. London: UCL Press.

Sinfield, S. (2003) ‘Teaching older learners: an opportunity not a problem’,

Investigations in teaching and learning in Higher Education, 1 (1): 35–40.

Sinfield, S., Burns, T. and Holley, D. (2004) ‘Outsiders looking in or insiders

looking out?’, in The Disciplining of Education: New Languages of Power and

Resistance. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.

Tett, L. (2000) ‘I’m working class and proud of it – gendered experiences of

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